![]() In addition, most data on evocative influences are derived from twin studies. Such G×E interactions are likely present in early childhood, when child behavior has proven to be amenable to intervention ( Olds et al., 2005) however, adoption studies prospectively examining social processes during this period are rare, with the current study and the Colorado Adoption Project ( Plomin & DeFries, 1985) being the only such studies to date. Large Genotype x Environment (G×E) interaction effects have been found for the development of conduct disorder and aggression in adolescence, antisocial personality disorder in adults, and depression in women. In addition, family context and parenting process play a central role in the moderation of genetic influences on child behavior. Evocative or environmentally mediated effects have also been found to be prominent in the preschool and school entry periods ( Deater-Deckard, 2000 Deater-Deckard & O'Connor, 2000). For example, heritable hostile behavior in adolescent adoptees has been shown to evoke harsh disciplinary practices in adoptive parents ( Ge et al., 1996). Longitudinal and cross-sectional studies have shown that heritable child characteristics influence parents’ behavior towards their children ( Dunn et al., 1986 Reiss et al., 2000). Preliminary analyses suggest the representativeness of the sample and minimal confounding effects of current trends in adoption practices, including openness and selective placement. Data collection includes the following primary constructs: infant/toddler temperament, social behavior, and health birth and adoptive parent personality characteristics, psychopathology, competence, stress, and substance use adoptive parenting and marital relations and prenatal exposure to drugs and maternal stress. Assessments occur at 6-month intervals until child age 3 years. Participants in the study were recruited following the birth of the child through adoption agencies located throughout the United States. The primary study aims are to examine how family processes mediate or moderate the expression of genetic influences in order to aid in the identification of specific family processes that could serve as malleable targets for intervention. The Early Growth and Development Study is a prospective adoption study of birth parents, adoptive parents, and adopted children ( N = 350 triads) that was initiated in 2003.
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